Novel membrane-targeting isoxanthohumol-amine conjugates for combating methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a widespread pathogen causing clinical infections and is multi-resistant to many antibiotics, making it urgent need to develop novel antibacterials to combat MRSA. Here, a series of novel isoxanthohumol-amine conjugates were synthesized as antibacterials. After bioactivity evaluation, a compound E2 was obtained, which showed excellent antibacterial activity against S. aureus and clinical MRSA isolates (MICs = 0.25-1 µg/mL), superior to vancomycin, and with negligible hemolysis and good membrane selectivity. Additionally, E2 exhibited fast bacterial killing, less susceptible to resistance, relatively low cytotoxicity, and good plasma stability. Mechanism investigation revealed that E2 can disrupt bacterial membranes by specifically binding to phosphatidylglycerol on the bacterial membrane, thus causing elevated intracellular ROS and leakage of DNA and proteins, and ultimately killing bacteria. Noticeably, E2 displayed a good in vivo safety profile and better in vivo therapeutic efficacy than the same dose of vancomycin, allowing it to be a potential antibacterial to conquer MRSA infections.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of a Novel Nuclear Factor-κB Inhibitory Derivative Derived from Pyrazolo[3,4-d]Pyrimidine in Three Inflammation Models.

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) plays a central role in inflammatory responses, and its physiologic functions are essential for cell survival and proliferation. Currently, drugs targeting NF-κB inhibition have not yet been applied in clinical practice. We investigated the physiologic effect of a novel NF-κB inhibitory compound, 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine derivative (INH #1), on three inflammatory animal models. The pharmacokinetics were measured by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. Acute hepatitis was induced by administrating lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and D-(+)-galactosamine hydrochloride followed by the analysis of survival time and inflammatory mediators. Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) was induced by immunization with type II collagen (CII), and serum-transfer arthritis (STA) was caused by injecting K/BxN mice serum. Clinical and histologic scores were evaluated in both arthritis models. Immune cell subset analysis, CII-induced interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) production and proliferation, and measurement of anti-CII IgG antibodies were performed in the CIA model. In the acute hepatitis model, INH #1 suppressed tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production and prevented early death in a dose-dependent manner. INH #1 significantly attenuated arthritis scores and joint inflammation in both arthritis models. Additionally, in the CIA model, dendritic cells (DCs) in the regional lymph nodes were decreased in the treated mice and antigen-induced IFN-γ production and cell proliferation in splenocytes were inhibited, whereas the titers of anti-CII IgG antibodies were comparable regardless of the treatment. Here we revealed that INH #1 exerted anti-inflammatory effects in vivo via inhibition of inflammatory mediators and suppression of cellular immune responses. This compound could be a novel candidate for inhibition of NF-κB in certain inflammatory diseases. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: A novel nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) inhibitory compound, 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine derivative (INH #1), which retains physiologically essential NF-κB bioactivity, suppressed inflammation in three different mouse models: the acute hepatitis model, the collagen-induced arthritis model, and the K/BxN serum-transfer arthritis model. These results suggest that this compound could be a novel and potent anti-inflammatory agent.

Gabapentin for Pain in Pediatric Palliative Care.

OBJECTIVE: Gabapentin is commonly used to treat pain in children receiving pediatric palliative care. This study describes the real-world use of gabapentin and the associated benefits and adverse effects/events (AEs). METHODS: A prospective, multicenter cohort of standardized data collection after a clinical decision was made to use gabapentin for managing neuropathic or nociplastic pain in children attended on by a pediatric palliative care service. It was conducted across 11 sites in seven countries including hospital, inpatient, and outpatient services. Clinical outcomes were graded using pain scales validated for age and cognitive ability and the National Cancer Institute Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (NCICTCAE) at baseline, 14 days, 28 days, six weeks and 12 weeks after initiation of gabapentin. Ad-hoc safety reporting continued throughout the study. RESULTS: Data were collected from 127 children with a median age of 4.7 years (IQR 0.1-17.9); 61% had a neurological disorder, 21% advanced cancer and the cohort had a high level of disability (Lansky/Karnofsky performance score 37.1). Gabapentin was prescribed at standard pediatric doses. On average, 76% of children had a reduction in pain and 42% experienced a potential AE. The mean pain score decreased from 6.0 (SD 2.6) at baseline to 3.3 (SD 2.4) at 14 days and 1.8 (SD 1.8) after 12-weeks of gabapentin therapy. Ten percent had increased pain at each time point. AEs did not increase when individual changes over time were accounted for except for somnolence (7%). Serious AEs attributable to gabapentin were possible or probable in 3% of children. CONCLUSIONS: Gabapentin prescribed at standard doses for advanced cancer and severe neurological injury in children under a pediatric palliative care service was associated with generally improved pain intensity at previously described levels of adverse effects.

Ketamine: Mechanisms and Relevance to Treatment of Depression.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a leading cause of suicide in the world. Monoamine-based antidepressant drugs are a primary line of treatment for this mental disorder, although the delayed response and incomplete efficacy in some patients highlight the need for improved therapeutic approaches. Over the past two decades, ketamine has shown rapid onset with sustained (up to several days) antidepressant effects in patients whose MDD has not responded to conventional antidepressant drugs. Recent preclinical studies have started to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of ketamine's antidepressant properties. Herein, we describe and compare recent clinical and preclinical findings to provide a broad perspective of the relevant mechanisms for the antidepressant action of ketamine.

Elucidating the glucose-lowering effect of the bile acid sequestrant sevelamer.

AIM: Bile acid sequestrants are cholesterol-lowering drugs, which also improve glycaemic control in people with type 2 diabetes. The mechanism behind the glucose-lowering effect is unknown but has been proposed to be mediated by increased glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secretion. Here, we investigated the glucose-lowering effects of sevelamer including any contribution from GLP-1 in people with type 2 diabetes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study, 15 people with type 2 diabetes on metformin monotherapy underwent two 17-day treatment periods with the bile acid sequestrant sevelamer and placebo, respectively, in a randomized order and with an interposed wash-out period of minimum 6 weeks. On days 15 and 17 of each treatment period, participants underwent experimental days with 4-h liquid meal tests and application of concomitant infusion of exendin(9-39)NH2 or saline. RESULTS: Compared with placebo, sevelamer improved insulin sensitivity (assessed by homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance) and beta-cell sensitivity to glucose and lowered fasting and postprandial plasma glucose concentrations. In both treatment periods, exendin(9-39)NH2 increased postprandial glucose excursions compared with saline but without absolute or relative difference between the two treatment periods. In contrast, exendin(9-39)NH2 abolished the sevelamer-induced improvement in beta-cell glucose sensitivity. CONCLUSIONS: The bile acid sequestrant sevelamer improved insulin sensitivity and beta-cell sensitivity to glucose, but using the GLP-1 receptor antagonist exendin(9-39)NH2 we were not able to detect a GLP-1-mediated glucose-lowering effect of sevelamer in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Nevertheless, the sevelamer-induced improvement of beta-cell sensitivity to glucose was shown to be GLP-1-dependent.

Development of 7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4-amine Derivatives Using QSARINS Tool as BTK Inhibitors for the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis.

BACKGROUND: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by inflammation of the joints, leading to pain, swelling, and joint deformity. Effective management of RA involves the use of disease-modifying drugs that can slow down disease progression and alleviate symptoms. Among the potential targets for RA treatment is Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK), which plays a crucial role in B-cell signalling and contributes to the pathogenesis of RA. AIMS: QSARINS (QSAR-INSUBRIA) is software used for the development and validation of Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) analysis. In the present work, this software was explored for pharmacophore optimization of the pyrrolo-pyrimidine nucleus for anti-rheumatoid activity. METHODS: A series of pyrrolo-pyrimidine derivatives were used to build the QSAR models. These models were generated to identify structural features that correlate significantly with the activity. We followed the assessment of statistical parameters to ensure thorough validation of all the QSAR models. The QSAR models demonstrating better statistical performance were selected, and descriptors of these models were analysed. RESULTS: The results showed that the QSAR models were highly statistically robust and exhibited a strong external predictive ability. Their structural features were also deduced. CONCLUSION: This QSAR study provided crucial information about the specific molecular features that can be used for the optimization of the pharmacophores. This research provides valuable insights into the structural features essential for BTK inhibition and paves the way for the design and development of novel anti-rheumatic agents targeting BTK in RA.

Effectiveness of oral clonidine and gabapentin on peripheral neuropathy in diabetic patients in southwestern Iran: a randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Peripheral neuropathy is not only the most prevalent consequence of diabetes but also the main reason for foot ulceration, disability, and amputation. Therefore, the current study aims to determine the effectiveness of oral clonidine and gabapentin on peripheral neuropathy in diabetic patients. METHODS: This 12-week, randomized, and parallel-group trial was conducted to compare the efficacy of oral clonidine and gabapentin with gabapentin alone in diabetic patients in southwest Iran during the first half of 2021. Thirty patients with type 2 diabetes with peripheral neuropathy as assessed by a visual analog scale (VAS) and divided into two groups of 15 patients, treated for up to three months. The data were analyzed using SPSS-21 software. In order to report the results, descriptive indices, independent t-test, one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and analysis of variance with repeated measures were used. RESULTS: The mean and standard deviation of the age of the participants in the clonidine + gabapentin group was equal to 50.20 ± 7.44, and in the gabapentin group was equal to 50.47 ± 7.57 (t = 0.10, P-value = 0.923). This research showed a significant difference between the clonidine + gabapentin group and with gabapentin group in terms of neuropathic pain and the severity of neuropathic pain (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: According to this research results, clonidine + gabapentin can reduce neuropathic pain and the severity of neuropathic pain in diabetic patients. Therefore, it is recommended that healthcare professionals with diabetes expertise prescribe these medications to reduce neuropathic pain and its severity. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This study was registered in the Iranian Clinical Trials System with the ID (IRCT20211106052983N1) on 14/01/2022.

FUNCTIONAL STATE OF THE LIVER IN PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS IN THE DYNAMICS OF PATHOGENETIC TREATMENT WITH A COMPLEX OF AMINO ACIDS.

OBJECTIVE: The aim: To investigate the in!uence of prescribing a complex of amino acids in pathogenetic therapy in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis on liver function. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and methods: The study included 50 patients with drug susceptible TB and 50 patients with drug-resistant TB (multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant). RESULTS: Results: The study included 50 patients with drug susceptible tuberculosis (TB) and 50 patients with drug-resistant TB. When comparing biochemical pa-rameters characterizing liver function in patients with drug-susceptible TB after 1 month of anti-tuberculosis therapy, it was found that patients receiving additional therapy with a complex of amino acids had a lower level of bilirubin, p <0.05. After 60 doses, patients receiving additional therapy with amino acids had significantly lower bilirubin levels alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), p <0.05. When comparing the biochemical parameters characterizing liver function in patients with drug-resistant tuberculosis after a month of anti-tuberculosis therapy, significantly higher protein level was found in the groups of patients receiving additional therapy with amino acids, as well as significantly lower ALT level, AST and creatinine p <0.05. CONCLUSION: Conclusions: The additional appointment of the complex of amino acids in the pathogenetic therapy of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis makes it possible to reduce the severity of hepatotoxic reactions manifested by the main parameters (AST, ALT, total bilirubin) and to increase the protein-synthetic function of the liver, which allows us to recommend their appointment to improve the tolerance of anti-tuberculosis therapy.

Prophylactic gabapentin during head and neck cancer therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: This review was designed to compile the currently available evidence on the prophylactic use of gabapentin in the head and neck cancer patient population. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted of PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar to identify articles related to the use of prophylactic gabapentin in patients undergoing head and neck cancer therapy. Candidate studies were screened for inclusion and a subsequent bias assessment was conducted by multiple reviewers. Meta-analysis was conducted in cases in which the studies used compatible outcome measures. RESULTS: Ten studies were identified that met the inclusion criteria and were assessed for bias. Among the four small studies that examined pain prevention, 2 were positive and 2 were inconclusive. Three of the four studies examiniRDng opioid use noted less need for opioids in the treatment arm. Meta-analysis of the pertinent studies showed no difference in feeding tube placement (RD = 0.64%, 95%CI: (- 25.8%, 27.1%), p = 0.962) but substantially less weight loss among those in the treatment arm (p = 0.047). CONCLUSION: Prophylactic gabapentin appears to be a promising treatment option for preventing pain, reducing opioids, and reducing weight loss in patients undergoing head and neck cancer therapy. However, the studies on the treatment to date are small and several have a substantial risk of bias.

Real-world treatment of pediatric narcolepsy with pitolisant: A retrospective, multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: First symptoms of narcolepsy mostly present during childhood. Pharmacological management options in children are limited, also due to approval status. Pitolisant is an inverse histamine 3 receptor agonist and has been approved for the treatment of adult narcolepsy with or without cataplexy by EMA and FDA. Clinical experience indicates for a beneficial use also in children and adolescents. Our goal was to evaluate the effects and tolerability of pitolisant in narcolepsy children/adolescents in a real-world setting. METHODS: This multicentre retrospective observational study included 55 patients with narcolepsy from three international narcolepsy centers (Germany, France and Italy) who were treated with pitolisant. Patients were eligible if they were at least 6 years old and diagnosed with narcolepsy type 1 or 2. Demographic and clinical characteristics, questionnaires, sleep medicine and laboratory data were collected. RESULTS: 55 children/adolescents (25 girls, 45.45%, 30 boys, 54.55%) aged 6-18 years, with narcolepsy (type 1 = 92.7%, type 2 = 7.3%), were treated with pitolisant. The mean pitolisant dose was 34.1 mg/d. Treatment was effective for excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) and cataplexy: the pediatric Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) score decreased from 19 to 13.5 (p < 0.001) and the weekly cataplexy frequency improved from 7.9 at baseline to 5.2 (p < 0.001). Treatment with pitolisant was well tolerated. Side effects were mild and mostly short-term. Insomnia was reported most frequently (5.5%). CONCLUSION: First real-world results suggest that pitolisant treatment is effective in improving EDS and cataplexy in children with narcolepsy, and also is well tolerated.

Characterization of Outpatient Gabapentinoid Prescribing for Pain.

Two statements from national organizations outline recommended minimum effective doses of gabapentin and pregabalin for the treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). However, studies of real-world gabapentinoid dosing demonstrate that the recommended dose targets are frequently not met and do not consider renal insufficiency. This study aimed to characterize gabapentinoid prescribing patterns in patients receiving primary care at two internal medicine clinics within an academic medical center. This retrospective chart review included adult outpatients who were newly initiated on gabapentin or pregabalin between October 1, 2017 and October 1, 2020 and reviewed for 12 months. A total of 1,221 patients were included in the study with 1,079 (88.4%) prescribed gabapentin and 142 (11.6%) prescribed pregabalin. Only 22.4% of patients prescribed gabapentin and 33.3% of patients prescribed pregabalin with adequate renal function met the minimum effective dosing of gabapentin 1800 mg per day and pregabalin 300 mg per day provided by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and American Academy of Neurology (AAN). This study supports the need for optimization of gabapentinoid dosing to ensure an adequate trial at the minimum effective dose is completed.

Efficacy and Safety of Fexuprazan in Patients with Acute or Chronic Gastritis.

Background/Aims: Fexuprazan is a novel potassium-competitive acid blocker that could be of benefit to patients with gastric mucosal injury. The aim of this study was to assess the 2-week efficacy and safety of fexuprazan in patients with acute or chronic gastritis. Methods: In this study, 327 patients with acute or chronic gastritis who had one or more gastric erosions on endoscopy and subjective symptoms were randomized into three groups receiving fexuprazan 20 mg once a day (q.d.), fexuprazan 10 mg twice a day (b.i.d.), or placebo for 2 weeks. The posttreatment assessments were the primary endpoint (erosion improvement rate), secondary endpoints (cure rates of erosion and edema and improvement rates of redness, hemorrhage, and subjective symptoms), and drug-related adverse events. Results: Among the patients, 57.8% (59/102), 65.7% (67/102), and 40.6% (39/96) showed erosion improvement 2 weeks after receiving fexuprazan 20 mg q.d., fexuprazan 10 mg b.i.d., and placebo, respectively. Both fexuprazan 20 mg q.d. and 10 mg b.i.d. showed superior efficacy to the placebo (p=0.017 and p<0.001, respectively). Likewise, both fexuprazan 20 mg q.d. and 10 mg b.i.d. also showed higher erosion healing rates than the placebo (p=0.033 and p=0.010, respectively). No difference was noted in the edema healing rate and the improvement rates for redness, hemorrhage, and subjective symptoms between the fexuprazan and placebo groups. No significant difference was noted in the incidence of adverse drug reactions. Conclusions: Fexuprazan 20 mg q.d. and 10 mg b.i.d. for 2 weeks showed therapeutic efficacy superior to that of placebo in patients with acute or chronic gastritis (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT04341454).

The Efficacy of Gabapentin + Dexamethasone for Postoperative Analgesia Following Septoplasty: A Prospective Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial.

AIMS: This study aimed to compare the efficacy of gabapentin, dexamethasone, and gabapentin + dexamethasone for pain control after septoplasty. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This prospective randomized trial included 120 patients that underwent septoplasty and were randomly divided into 4 groups: group G (preoperative gabapentin 600 mg p.o.); group D (intraoperative dexamethasone 8 mg i.v.); group GD (preoperative gabapentin 600 mg p.o. + intraoperative dexamethasone 8 mg i.v.); group C (placebo control). RESULTS: The median VAS score was significantly lower in groups G and GD at 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, and 24 hours postsurgery than in group C (P < .008 for all). The median VAS score was significantly lower in group D than in group C at 1, 2, and 4 hours postsurgery (P < .008 for all). There weren't any significant differences in the VAS score between groups D, G, and GD at any time point. Groups G, D, and GD had a significantly lower frequency of rescue analgesic use than group C; however, there were no differences between groups G, GD, and C (P < .001 and P = .108, respectively). CONCLUSION: Gabapentin, dexamethasone, and gabapentin + dexamethasone are equally more effective analgesics during the first 4 hours postsurgery than placebo. The addition of dexamethasone to gabapentin does not provide extra analgesia. Both gabapentin and gabapentin + dexamethasone have a more prolonged analgesic effect than dexamethasone alone.

Beyond monoamines: II. Novel applications for PET imaging in psychiatric disorders.

Early applications of positron emission tomography (PET) in psychiatry sought to identify derangements of cerebral blood flow and metabolism. The need for more specific neurochemical imaging probes was soon evident, and these probes initially targeted the sites of action of neuroleptic (dopamine D2 receptors) and psychoactive (serotonin receptors) drugs. For nearly 30 years, the centrality of monoamine dysfunction in psychiatric disorders drove the development of an armamentarium of monoaminergic PET radiopharmaceuticals and imaging methodologies. However, continued investments in monoamine-enhancing drug development realized only modest gains in efficacy and tolerability. As patent protection for many widely prescribed and profitable psychiatric drugs lapsed, drug development pipelines shifted away from monoamines in search of novel targets with the promises of improved efficacy, or abandoned altogether. Over this period, PET radiopharmaceutical development activities closely parallelled drug development priorities, resulting in the development of new PET imaging agents for non-monoamine targets. In part two of this review, we survey clinical research studies using the novel targets and radiotracers described in part one across major psychiatric application areas such as substance use disorders, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, personality disorders, mood disorders, and schizophrenia. Important limitations of the studies described are discussed, as well as key methodologic issues, challenges to the field, and the status of clinical trials seeking to exploit these targets for novel therapeutics.

Gabapentin-Friend or foe?

BACKGROUND: Gabapentin is a recommended first-line agent for treating neuropathic pain; however, its efficacy rate is reportedly low, and the risk of adverse events is high. A plausible explanation for this lies with its wide range of actions, the entirety of which have yet to be fully elucidated. METHODS: A review of the literature was conducted on gabapentin's known and proposed analgesic mechanisms of action, as well as potentially opposing or detrimental actions. RESULTS: Gabapentin's classical analgesic mechanisms involve direct attenuation of excitatory neurotransmission in the spinal cord via inhibition of neuronal ion channels, while indirect mechanisms include descending inhibition and block of injury-evoked synaptogenesis. Glial effects have also been reported; however, whether they are neuroprotective or detrimental is unknown. Furthermore, data from animal models do not reflect clinical outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Gabapentin's clinical use should be reconsidered according to the net effects of its numerous assumed actions, including the tripartite synapse and oligodendrocyte effects. Whether it is doing more harm than good, especially in the scenarios of incomplete or loss of response, warrants consideration when prescribing gabapentin.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel pyrazolo-pyrimidin-amines as potent and selective BTK inhibitors.

To discover the best-in-class Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase (BTK) inhibitors, for th treatment of autoimmune disorders like cancer (B-Cell Lymphoma (BCL)) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), in the present investigation, novel structural optimizations were carried out. Introduction of novel bicyclic amine linkers and aromatic backbone led to series of compounds 9a-h and 14a-u. Compound 14b was found to be potent, orally bioavailable, selective and irreversible BTK inhibitor. In vitro, 14b showed IC50 of 1.0 nM and 0.8 nM, in BTK and TMD8 assays, respectively. In vivo,14b displayed robust efficacy in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and TMD8 xenograft models, which could be correlated with its improved oral bioavailability. In the repeated dose acute toxicity study, 14b showed no adverse changes, indicating that the BTK inhibitor 14b could be viable therapeutic option for the treatment of autoimmune disorders.

Case Series: Synergistic Effect of Gabapentin and Adjuvant Pregabalin in Neuropathic Pain.

Gabapentin and pregabalin both exert high affinity to the α2δ subunit of the voltage-gated calcium channels which inhibits excitatory neurotransmitter release. The synergistic mechanism was described in rats given combinations of gabapentin and pregabalin. In this case series, we described 2 cases which may illustrate the synergistic effect of gabapentin and pregabalin in treatment resistant neuropathic pain. Low dose pregabalin was added to therapeutic gabapentin to achieve appreciable pain reduction in one case and improved quality of life in another case. Further research with more enrollment and longer study duration may help elucidate the appropriate dosing and potential associated side effects.

AS1411 aptamer-functionalized exosomes in the targeted delivery of doxorubicin in fighting colorectal cancer.

Severe side effects of chemotherapy agents on vital organs are the major causes of cancer-related mortality, not merely cancer disease. Encapsulating chemotherapeutic molecules in nanocarriers is a justifiable solution in decreasing the risk of their side effects and boosting the efficiency of treatment. The present study has developed the doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded AS1411 (anti-nucleolin) aptamer surface-functionalized exosome (DOX-Apt-Exo) to treat colorectal cancer in both in-vitro and in-vivo experimental models. HEK293-derived exosomes were loaded with DOX through the incubation method with a nearly 13% encapsulation efficiency. Afterwards, the 5-terminal carboxyl group of AS1411-aptamer was converted into amine-reactive NHS esters with EDC/NHS amide coupling chemistry before being conjugated to the amine groups on the exosome surface. DLS and TEM estimated the designed formulation (DOX-Apt-Exo) size of about 200 nm. Aptamer-binding affinity and cellular uptake of DOX-Apt-Exo by nucleolin-overexpressing cancer cells were depicted through fluorescence microscopy. Comparing the in-vitro cytotoxicity impact of DOX-loaded exosomes, either targeted or non-targeted by MTT assay, clearly verified a high effectiveness of ligand-receptor mediated target therapy. Subsequently, in-vivo experiments which were conducted on four groups of ectopic mouse models of colon cancer (5 in each group) demonstrated the tumor growth suppression through professional long-term accumulation and retention of DOX-Apt-Exo at the tumor site by ligand-receptor interaction. The results suggested that AS1411 aptamer-functionalized exosomes can be recommended as a safe and effective system to site-specific drug delivery in possible clinical applications of colon cancer.